Indian Navy (cold war)

Creating an Independent Navy (1950)

The Indian Navy was largely built from the WW2 Royal Indian Navy, which ceased to exist as an entity on 26 January 1950, when was created the “Indian Navy”, to this day one of the largest in Asia, reflecting Indian’s post-colonial aspirations on the international scene. Its composition is a reflection of the country’s struggle out of the world’s bipolar alliances during the cold war. Despite India’s wars since 1949, the Navy was never seriously tested, The exceptions being the 1961 Indian annexation of Goa and limited actions during the Indo-Pakistani wars.

Following the independence and partition, on 15 August 1947, the RIN’s worn out vessels and remaining personnel were divided between the new Dominions of India and Pakistan. 21% for the officers, 47% of the sailors choosed to join the Royal Pakistan Navy. The Indian Navy at that time comprised 32 vessels and 11,000 personnel. All British officers were retired, including in the reserve and Indian officers were promoted to replace them. Nevertheless as a transitional measure, some British flag and senior officers served on invitation in RIN as well as councillors and advisors for the navy staff. In fact, only nine Indian commissioned officers had that time had more than 10 years service, the majority only served 5-6 years. Rear Admiral John Talbot Savignac Hall was at the head of the RIN as Commander-in-Chief in 1947. By May 1948, Captain Ajitendu Chakraverti became the first Indian commodore. India became a republic on 26 January 1950, and the navy name was shortened to “Indian Navy” while ship’s prefixes went to “HMIS”, to Indian Naval Ship: INS. The imperial crown in all navy insignia were removed a replaced by a new symbol comprising the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Naval ensigns with the Union Jack were replaced with the Indian Tricolour.

By 1955, the Indian Navy was largely rebuilt and reorganized, achieving its transition. The last British officers retained as advisors had helped this process and were now due to retirement. The head of staff became also Indian, as Admiral Sir Edward Parry (1948) was replaced by Admiral Sir Charles Thomas Mark Pizey (1951-1955) then Stephen Hope Carlill while from 1952, all senior Naval appointments were now “Indianized”. Basic training for naval cadets was entirely made in India by Indian officers in 1955 and the next year, Ram Dass Katari became first Indian flag officer, and first Indian fleet Commander, on 2 October. On 22 April 1958, Vice Admiral Katari at last replaced Carlill as INS Chief of Staff. In 1962 the last British officer advisor departed: Commodore David Kirke, Chief of Naval Aviation. But like for the Army and air force, British influence on the Navy is still palpable today in many aspects, notably design and operations.

The fleet during that time comprised two newly acquired ww2 cruisers and destroyers, but would wait until 1961 to acquire its first aircraft carrier (conways). In 1961 at the eve of Operation Vijay, the invasion of Goa, the Indian Navy comprised the following: Aircraft carrier INS Vikrant (just commissioned on 4 March 1961), the Cruiser INS Delhi (1948) and INS Mysore (1957), Rana class destroyers (1949), Ganga, Brahmaputra and Talwar class frigates (1953-58), Ajay class SDBs (1960) for the coast guard, while the landings were performed by INS Magar (L11) (1951).

Combat Tested: The IN in action

Naval actions at Goa (1961)

The first combat engagement of the Indian Navy was against the Portuguese Navy during the liberation of Goa in 1961. Operation Vijay was the conclusion of years of escalating tension in the area. Indeed the Portuguese refused to relinquish control of its colonies in Africa but also in India. On 21 November 1961, Portuguese troops fired on the passenger liner Sabarmati off Anjadip Island. This was considered by the Indians as a casus belli and they prepared Operation Vijay, a landing on Goa island supported by the Navy. Indian cruisers and destroyers provided fire support and INS Delhi later sank a Portuguese patrol boat. The Frigates INS Betwa and INS Beas destroyed the Portuguese frigate NRP Afonso de Albuquerque. These were all classic gunnery engagements, no sides has missiles yet. Next year during the Indo-Pak war, the Navy only played a defensive role patrolling to prevent Pakistani Navy actions on the western coast.

1965 Indo-Pak war

INS Kursura which played her role in the Indo-Pak war of 1971.
When the third Indo-Pakistani War broke out 1965, the Navy still comprised the same carrier and two cruisers, nineteen destroyers and frigates plus a fleet tanker available for operations. But then ships over this total were under refit. The Navy performed coastal patrols, at least until the Pakistani Navy attacked the Indian coastal city of Dwarka. India considered it as a grave provocation and deployed its fleet to patrol the coast, deterring other Pakistani raids in the area. There was no other incident but the Indian naval staff decided it was time to assess the capabilities of the navy and start to strengthen and modernize it.

1971 Indo-Pak war

This was saw a far more active part played by the Navy, also due to recent acquisitions of the Pakistani Navy. In 1971 the Indian Navy was under command of Admiral Sardarilal Mathradas Nanda, and had the assets necessary to enforce a naval blockade of West and East Pakistan. Pakistani submarine PNS Ghazi was sunk after attacking the destroyer INS Rajput off Visakhapatnam on 3–4 December 1971.
-On 4 December Operation Trident was launched. It was a massive attack on the Pakistan Naval Headquarters in Karachi. The Indian fleet sank a minesweeper, a destroyer and an ammo ship in the harbor as well as badly damaging another destroyer and destroying oil storage and facilities, crippling the navy’s capabilities for good. 4 December became later Indian Navy Day.
–Operation Python took place on 8 December 1971.

However fight at sea occurred and led to some losses, like the Indian frigate INS Khukri (Captain M. N. Mulla) sunk by PNS Hangor, and INS Kirpan damaged. During all the campaign, INS Vikrant was deployed in the Bay of Bengal, enforcing the naval blockade of Eastern Pakistan with success, deploying its Sea Hawk fighter-bombers and Alizé ASW aircraft, claiming gunboats and merchant shipping. However by that time, the situation rapidly escalated. The United States, an ally of Pakistan, sent Task Force 74 (USS Enterprise) into the Bay of Bengal to face the Indian blockade, and in retaliation, the Soviet Navy, which had good relationship with Indian, sent submarines to trail the task force, forcing it out of the Indian Ocean to avoid an incident. It was positioned in Southeast Asia, close to the nearby Vietnam war, still raging at this point. The Indian naval blockade choked off supplies and reinforcements as planned and proved to be decisive on the long run, in the defeat of Pakistan.

1980s Actions

The Indian navy became, before acquisition of nuclear power, the de facto deterrent force of India, maintaining peace towards Pakistan for the remaining years of the cold war.
-In 1983, the Indian Navy however launched Operation Lal Dora in support of the government of Mauritius, fearing a military coup.
-In 1986 took place Operation Flowers are Blooming: The Indian Navy foiled another attempted coup, this time in the Seychelles.
-In 1988, India launched Operation Cactus: Foiling this time a coup by PLOTE in the Maldives. For the first time, Indian naval maritime reconnaissance plane an important role by locating an Indian ship hijacked by PLOTE rebels. INS Godavari launched an Indian marine commandos raid to recapture the ship.

Post cold war plans

INS Vikrant preserved in Mumbai as a museum ship was since scrapped.

In 1999 took place the Kargil War with Pakistan, largely a mountain border war over Kashmir. The Indian Western and Eastern fleets for the first time were deployed in the Northern Arabian Sea for Operation Talwar. They secured Indian maritime assets from any Pakistani naval attack and counter any possible counter blockade on her own sea-trade routes. Marine Aviation and marine commandos also took part in the fight in the Himalayas. The Indian Coast Guard rescued MV Alondra Rainbow, a Japanese cargo ship seized by Pirates and the IN is now a regular contributor to the anti-piracy patrols on the red sea and African horn.

Nomenclature

INS Vikrant in 1984

Aircraft Carriers: In 1961, a bold step was taken with the acquisition of the first Indian aircraft carrier, the ww2 Majestic class (ex-HMS Hercules), previously modernized as INS Vikrant. She stayed active until replacement by the first Indian domestic aircraft carrier, also named INS Vikrant. A second aircraft carrier was acquired in 1986, INS Viraat (ex HMS Hermes), a veteran of the Falklands war. In 2013, India also acquired INS Vikramaditya, the ex Kiev-class Admiral Gorshskov, completely rebuilt and modernized by the Russians as a smaller version of the Kuznetsov aircraft carrier.

The impressive INS Vikramaditya during her sea trials

Modern Frigates: In 1966-75 were built, for the first time in India, at Mazagon docks of Bombay, six ASW Frigates, based on the British “broad beam Leander” class. In 1980, three fully Indian design Godavari class frigates and in the 1990s, three new improved Frigates of the type.

Indian Submarines: There were none in service until the purchase of eight Foxtrot class from USSR in 1968-74, discarded in the 1990s as the first modern German-design SSKs were obtained in the 1980s, the Shishumar class, eight Kilo type SSks from USSR as well as a unique Charlie I SSGN type, INS Chakra. More recently was developed the first local SSBN class, the Arihant.

INS Kursura of the Foxtrot type, which played an important role in the 1971 Indo-Pak war.

Indian Amphibious ships: An ex-British LST3 was acquired in 1951 (INS Magar), Ten soviet-built Polocny class LS in the 1960s, and locally built three LCU (Vasco de Gama class) in 1980 plus the to wo Magar-class based on the Sir Lancelot class TLS.
Corvettes: 12 Petya III class corvettes were acquired in 1969-74, 3 nanuchka II, 10 Tarantul I class, and six Indian-built Khukri class missile corvettes from 1989, followed by the 1990s Abhay class ASW corvettes.
Smaller vessels: 16 Osa class FACs, 5 SBD Mk2 class PCs, 4 “Ford” class SDB, 5 Poluchat class CPC, 7 Sukanya class OPVs, 9 Vikram class OPBs, 4 “Ton class”, 3 Ham class, 12 Natya class and 6 Yevgenya class minesweepers.

The case of SSGN INS Chakra (1991)

K-43 was a Charlie-II type nuclear-powered cruise missile submarine built between 1964 and 1967, commissioned into the Soviet navy on 5 November 1967. She was armed with eight SS-N-7 Starbright anti-ship cruise missiles and six 21 in torpedo tubes with 12 torpedoes alternative to tube-launched 12 SS-N-15 Starfish anti-submarine missiles. The sub was ageing when the Indian Government approached Russian authorities for a leasing, as “INS Chakra” which served with the Indian Navy from 1988 to 1991.
She left for India on 5 January 1988 from Vladivostok, was recommissioned the same day, via the South China Sea and Malacca Strait, escorted by the frigate INS Dunagiri and constantly tracked along the way by American and Australian P-3 Orion aircraft; She was based in Visakhapatnam from 3 February 1988 and visited by PM Rajiv Gandhi, minister K. C. Pant, and CNO G. J. Nadkami plus Vice Admiral S. C. Chopra, for a sortie. She also took part in the Presidential Fleet Review on 15 February 1989 at Mumbai. The transfer at the time had widespread coverage, but it was not fully controlled by India, just partially manned and control by the Soviet crew as part of the leasing. It seems the missile room and reactor compartment were off limited, so the contract was terminated after 3 years. She served all this time on the eastern and western fleets. Chakra departed from Visakhapatnam on 16 December 1990, escorted by INS Savitri to Vadivostock and decommissioned in January 1991. It seems the goal was just to perfect the handling of a a nuclear submarine, and that proved decisive for the Arihant class program in the 2010s.

SSN INS Chakra II (2008)

The K-152 Nerpa (“Baikal seal”) was built at Amur Shipbuilding Plant, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, laid down in 1993 as a 8,140-tonne (8,010-long-ton) Project 971 (or Project 518 NATO Akula-class) launched on October 2008 and commissioned on 2009. She was leased to the Indian Navy for 10 years in 2012, up to June 2021. Then again, no details as the way the sub was handled, but probably under the same, or more favourable terms in order to prepare crews for the Ahirant class.

Challenges of today’s Indian Navy

The Indian Task Force, led by INS Vikramaditya and INS Viraat in the Arabian sea in 2014.

As of 2020, the Indian Navy (IN) counts 67,252 active personnel and 55,000 reserve personnel, and 150 ships excluding auxiliaries are listed. The air components counts about 300 aircraft (including helicopters). Its Integrated Defence Headquarters are situated at the Ministry of Defence, in New Delhi. Its Motto, “Shaṁ No Varunaḥ” means ‘May the Lord of Water be auspicious unto us’.

Indian Naval Bases

Following the tradition of British Naval Bases named like ships (“HMS”), Indian Naval bases follwoed the same credo. Due to the size of the continenta dn two coasts, their number is considerable:

INS India

New Delhi, Logistics and Administrative support, Central Naval HQ.

Western Naval Command:

• INS Dwarka: Okha, Gujarat: Logistics and Maintenance support
• INS Sardar Patel: Porbandar: Logistics Support
• NAE Porbandar: Naval Air Enclave at Porbandar Airport
• INS Kadamba: Karwar, Karnataka: Logistics and Maintenance support
• INS Vajrakosh: Naval ammunition and missile depot
• INHS Patanjali: Naval Hospital
• INS Gomantak, vasco da gama: Goa, Logistics and Maintenance support
• INS Hansa, Dabolim: Naval Air Station
• INHS Jeevanti, Vasco da Gama: Naval Hospital
• INS Angre, Mumbai, Maharashtra: Logistics and Administrative support
• INS Abhimanyu: MARCOS (Naval Sepcial Forces) Base
• INS Agnibahu: Missile Boat Squadron Base
• INHS Asvini: Naval Hospital
• INS Kunjali: Naval Air Station
• INS Shikra: Naval Air Station
• INS Tanaji: Naval ammunition depot
• INS Trata: Coastal Missile Defence
• INS Tunir: Naval missile depot
• INS Vajrabahu: Submarine base
• NAE Santa Cruz: Naval Air Enclave at Mumbai Airport

Southern Naval Command

• INS Dweeprakshak, Kavaratti (Lakshadweep): Logistics and Maintenance support
• INS Minicoy; Minicoy: Forward Operating Base
• INS Androth: Forward Operating Base and Radar station
• INS Bitra**: Forward Operating Base
• INS Garuda, Kochi (Kerala): Naval Air Station
• INHS Sanjivani: Naval Hospital
• INS Venduruthy: Logistics and Administrative support
• INS Dronacharya: Naval Weapons Training
• NAE Kochi: Naval Air Enclave at Cochin International Airport
• INS Zamorin, Ezhimala: Logistics and Maintenance support to Indian Naval Academy
• INS Chilka, Khordha (Odisha): Naval Training
• INHS Nivarini: Naval Hospital
• INS Mandovi, Panaji (Goa): Naval Training
• INS Hamla, Mumbai (Maharashtra): Combined Operations Training
• INS Shivaji, Lonavala: Technical Training
• INHS Kasturi: Naval Hospital
• INS Valsura, Jamnagar (Gujarat): Electric Equipment Training
• INS Rajali, Arakkonam (Tamil Nadu): Naval Air Station
• INS Agrani, Coimbatore: Leadership Training

Eastern Naval Command

• INS Satavahana, Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh): Submarine Warfare Training
• INS Vishwakarma: Shipwright School
• INS Circars: Logistics and Administrative support
• INS Dega: Naval Air Station
• INS Virbahu: Submarine base
• INHS Kalyani: Naval Hospital
• INS Kalinga: Naval Missile Depot
• INS Eksila: Marine gas turbine maintenance
• INS Karna: MARCOS Garrison, east coast.
• INS Varsha**: Submarine base
• INS Badangi**, Vizianagaram: Naval Air Station
• INS Pudur**, Pudur (Telangana): Submarine VLF/ELF facility
• INS Adyar, Chennai (Tamil Nadu): Logistics and Maintenance support
• NAE Chennai: Naval Air Enclave at Chennai International Airport
• INS Parundu, Uchipuli: Naval Air Station
• INS Kattabomman, Tirunelveli: Submarine VLF facility
• INS Thoothukudi, Thoothukudi: Logistics support
• INS Netaji Subhas, Kolkata (West Bengal): Logistics and administrative support
• INS Paradip**, Paradip (Odisha): Forward Operating Base
• NAE Bhubaneswar**, Bhubaneswar: Naval Air Enclave at Bhubaneswar Airport

Andaman & Nicobar Command

• INS Kardip, Kamorta (Andaman & Nicobar Islands): Logistics support
• INS Jarawa, Port Blair: Logistics and Administrative support
• INS Utkrosh: Joint Naval and Air Force Base
• INHS Dhanvantri: Naval Hospital
• INS Baaz, Campbell Bay: Naval Air Station
• INS Campbell Bay**: Forward Operating Base
• INS Kohassa, Diglipur: Naval Air Station

Indian Naval Air Force

The Indian naval air component was created by the setting of the first Indian naval air station, INS Garuda in Cochin, 11 May 1953. It hosted the No.550 Squadron, equipped with Short Sealand and Fairey Firefly models. In the No.300 White Tigers Squadron was created, first naval fighter Sqn, equipped with Sea Hawks. This was before the adoption of INS Vikrant. Vikrant’s initial air wing also comprised Hawker Sea Hawk, and soon also completed by French Alize ASW turboprop engine aircraft. On 18 May 1961 Lieutenant R H Tahiliani made the first jet landing onboard Vikrant. The same year, No.310 Cobras ASW Squadron (Alize) was created. These assets would play a role in the liberation of Goa and Indo-Pakistan war in 1965 and 1971.

In 1976, the Indian Air Force handed over some of its Super Constellation to the No.312 Albatross Squadron for long range patrol. They were based in Dabolim, Goa. But they were soon withdrawn from service, in 1983, replaced by Soviet Ilyushin Il-38 aircraft. More were on order, creating the No. 315 Winged Stallions Squadron 1977. On the helicopter side, equipùent was diverse also: Alouette III were licence-built as the Chetak, used for SAR missions. The Hughes 269 helicopter was used mostly for training.
The 1980s saw a leap forward in tech, with the adoption of the BAE Sea Harrier as well as purchase of INS Viraat. With two aircraft carriers, the navay was now capable to operate two full task forces, for the eastern and western fleet. Until 6 March 2016, BAE Sea Harrier FRS Mk.51 and the training model Mk.60 flew with the squadrons INAS 300 and INAS 552. Unlike the British ones they were uniquely armed with the French Matra Magic-II AAM instead of the Sidewinder, and Sea Eagle Anti-ship missiles and they were after the cold war modernized with Israeli electronics and new missiles. In the 1990s Indian fleet air arm was old enough to generate its own museum, the Naval Aviation Museum located of Bogmalo, 6 km (3.7 mi) from Vasco da Gama, Goa. The story goes on with the Mig-29K, Boeing P-8I Neptune for long range patrols, Sea King and HAL Dhruv helicopters, Kamov Ka-25, 28 and 31 for ASW, land-based and sea-based.

Indian Marines: MARCOS

There is no proper “Marine Infantry” unit as in many other countries. Instead, the Navy simply operates with the army for amphibious operations. There os however a proper special fores branch, called the MARCOS, “Marine Commandos” or Marine Commando Force (MCF), special operations unit, raised in 1987 to be more specialized in Amphibious warfare. As special forces they are also trained for Close Quarter Combat Counter-terrorism, Direct action, Special reconnaissance, Unconventional warfare, Hostage rescue, Personnel recovery, Combat search and rescue, Asymmetric warfare, Foreign internal defence, Counterproliferation, Amphibious reconnaissance or Hydrographic reconnaissance to prepare landing areas.

MARCOS was involved in Operation Pawan, Operation Cactus, UNOSOM II, Kargil War and Operation Black Tornado and anti-piracy operations as recently as 2022-2023. This forced does not operate a heavy component (no armoured vehicle), but could be paradropped or heliborne from HAL Dhruv, WS-61 Sea King and Chetak helicopters wit their equipments notably quads for quick mobility, and underwater mobility systems like the Cosmos CE-2F X100 two-man Swimmer Delivery Vehicle and Indian Navy Swimmer Delivery Vehicle. Hope that HI Sutton will make an article on these soon.

Indian Coast Guard

The establishment of the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) was first proposed to disgharge the Indian Navy from non-military maritime services, following tsimilar corps created in many navies, including the USA. In the 1960s indeed, sea-borne smuggling reached such heights it was hurting domestic economy. On the other hand, the responsible Indian Customs Department frequently called upon the Indian Navy for assistance since it lacked the proper assets (too few small boats, no air support).

Thuse, the Nagchaudhuri Committee was constituted as a joint effort by the Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force and by August 1971, concluded that to correctly patrol the vast coastline, there was the need to register offshore fishing vessels so to identify illegal activity and constitute a force to intercept these vessels. The comittee discussed the equipment, infrastructure and personnel to ne provided and by 1973, the programme to acquire assets and recruiting personnel from the Indian Navy were made official under the provisions of the Maintenance of Internal Security Act. The core mission was revolving around law enforcement and thus the ships needed to be only lightly armed but had range and modularity over other considerations.

CNO Admiral Sourendra Nath Kohli hence recommended to the Defence Secretary that this separate maritime service could also assist the Navy in case of war, and that the Navy should assist the croation of the coast guard. On 31 August 1974, a note was prepared for the PM and by September 1974, the Indian cabinet set up the Rustamji Committee led by Khusro Faramurz Rustamji, joining the Navy and Air Force staffs to the Department of Revenue to explore gaps in security, law enforcement missioned to separate from the Indian Navy and those cared for by the central and state police forces.

ICG Chetak picking up survivors during a mock drill ar SAREX 2014

The discovery of oil off Bombay made it even more important, as well as a dedicated protection service whic can also be used for fishery protection and patrolling the Indian EEZ. The committee completed the bases for the Indian Coast Guard, sanctioned by the MoD on 31 July 1975. It was placed under supervision of the Ministry of Defence. The interim Indian Coast Guard was created on 1 February 1977 with two small corvettes, five patrol boats transferred from the Navy and its missions precised in the Coast Guard Act passed at the parliament on 18 August 1978, with Vice Admiral V. A. Kamath becoming its founding Director-General, proposing a five-year plan to develop it further towards 1984. Only economic difficulties slowed the plan down, but in the 1990s and the recent decades, the ICG grew ten fold.

By October 1999, the ICG made headlines by recapturing on the high seas a rogue Panamanian-registered Japanese cargo ship, MV Alondra Rainbow whuch had been hijacked off Indonesia, by ICGS Tarabai and INS Prahar. It was followed by the first successful prosecution of armed pirates in a century. Today, the ICG also trained regularly with other coast guards of the world. In May 2005 it established liaison links with the Pakistan Maritime Security Agency and by 2006 started exercizes with the Japanese and Korean CGs. After the 2008 Mumbai attacks, the ICG experienced its largest expansion, ailing to have 200 ships, 100 twin-engined aircraft by 2023, but today, it possesses 3 pollution control vessels, 27 offshore patrol vessels (OPVs), 45 fast patrol vessels, 82 patrol boats, 14 patrol craft, 18 hovercraft, 67 aircraft and 13,842 employees by 2019.

Bases:

Western Seaboard (Mumbai) at ADG KR Suresh, PTM, TM
Eastern Seaboard (Chennai)

Coast Guard regions

-Regional HQ location, Regional commander
-Western Region (W), Mumbai, IG MV Baadkar, TM
-Eastern Region (E), Chennai, IG Anand Prakash Badola, TM
-North-East Region (NE), Kolkata, IG IS Chauhan, TM
-Andaman & Nicobar Region (A&N), Port Blair, IG B Sharma, TM
-North-West Region (NW), Gandhinagar, IG AK Harbola, TM

Today’s Indian Navy Ships:

Delhi class missile destroyers (1991)

These were the first missile destroyers designed and built in India. Their design and construction started before the end of the cold war. Project 15 destroyers were a local design with some remaining soviet influence (Some experts had summarized them as “stretched kashin”), larger and built at Mazagon Dock. The first of four ships was ordered in 1986, INS Delhi, laid down in November 1987 and launched in February 1991, completed in 1993. Three were to follow, one started in 1991 (INS Mysore), another in 1993 (INS Bangalore) but the last was eventually cancelled. They were reasonably fast at 30 knots, and their main armament comprised Soviet sea-skimming missiles SSN-7 and SAN-7 Gadfly for AA defense, as well as 76 mm guns, CIWS and for ASW 324 mm TTs and RBU-6000 RL.
They will be covered more in detail in a standalone post. They were followed by the Kolkata class of nearly 10,000 tonnes displacement fully loaded, integrating stealthy features and the next-gen EL/M-2248 MF-STAR AESA radar (first launched 2006, last 2016).

New Carrier program (1989)

In 1989, a few years after INS Viraat entered service and while INS Vikrant was scheduled for retirement, the MoD announced a class of three CV was planned: Two to replace the old WW2-vintage carriers Vikrant and Viraat (R11, R22) and a third to create two independent task forces for the west and eastern fleets while one carrier was in maintenance. Initially, a French DCN design was selected, as a 28,000 tonnes variant of the CVN Charle de Gaulle. It was planned to use the new Soviet VSTOL, but this was later marred by industrial problems with Cochin shipyards. Plans to see the first commissioned for the jubilee of 1997 was foiled by capacity and supply problems. In 1991, the project was relaunched, this time with the selection of the cheaper Italian Garibaldi class CV instead. Also in 1994 the purchase of Admiral Gorshkov was made, while the 1999 program was finalized as the Project 71 ADS, then postponed and relaunched as a 2001 CSL 32,000-ton STOBAR concept. It was finalized by Admiral Arun Prakash in 2006 and construction started in 2008 after two years of R&D. The current INS Vikrant took from various influences and former studies but is largely a re actualized national project, with four General Electric LM2500 gas turbines and MiG-29 K fighter-bombers.

Indian Sea Hawks used during the 1971 indo-Pak war on Vikrant and Viraat.

Indian Breguet 1050 Alize, 14 were delivered in 1961 to the Indian Naval Air Arm, deployed from land base (INAS 310, Hansa) and from INS Vikrant until 1991.

HAL Chetak SAR helicopter (Aerospatiale Alouette III under licence)

Hawker Sea Harrier: A squadron was purchased to serve onboard the more modern INS Viraat (INAS 300), and another later, INAS 552. By 1983 India was the only operator other than Britain. They are removed from service since 2016.

The most serious asset of the fleet air arm is the navalized version of the Mig-29. Basically the same developed for the Russian carrier Kuznetsov. In 2004 India ordered 12 MiG-29K single-seat and 4 MiG-29KUB two-seat fighters to operate from the Vikramaditya, part of the same contract. Aside some problems with spare parts and maintenance, there is no current replacement schedule, although the Navy plans to acquired about 50 navalized HAL Tejas and/or the larger HAL TEDBF in development.

It is nowadays comprising the following:
-Fighter-Bombers: MiG-29K (45 for INS Vikramaditya and land-based, 2004 and 2010 contracts)
-Helicopters: Dhruv, Ka-28, Ka-31, Sea King Mk.42C, UH-3 Sea King, Chetak, MH-60 Seahawk
-Patrol planes: P-8 Poseidon, Ilyushin Il-38, Dornier 228
-Reconnaissance planes: IAI Heron, IAI Searcher Mk II, General Atomics MQ-9B SeaGuardian
-Trainer aircraft: BAE Hawk, HAL HJT-16, Pipistrel Virus, MiG-29KUB

Indian deterrence

As early as 26 June 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru announced hope its scientists could be able one day to create an atomic force, for constructive purposes or to act as deterrent if India was threatened. After a first research reactor in 1956, first plutonium reprocessing plant in 1964 the Indian nuclear programme went back to Homi Jehangir Bhabha founding in 1944 of the nuclear research centre at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. The border war in October 1962 helped the New Delhi government to secure fundings for a nuclear weapons program towards China, and 1964 India started development of nuclear weapons. First test was in 1974 (“Smiling Buddha”) using plutonium from the Canadian-supplied CIRUS reactor. Another test campaign followed in 1998 (“Operation Shakti”). It was interrupted when the US and Japan imposed imposed sanctions on India, but later lifted. As of today, the head of Pokhran-II nuclear tests announced India could develop neutron bombs as well.

India’s deterrence principle is the no-first-use policy, and “credible minimum deterrence.” In August 1999, the doctrine was parlty published. A Strategic Nuclear Command was established in 2003. It is headed by Air Force officer (Air Marshal) Asthana C-in-C. Joint services and nuclear policy are under its responsibility. Its use however is under the Cabinet Committee on Security order. The doctrine was reaffirmed in 2010 and 2013. In 2016, it was however questioned by Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar and since 2019 it was agreed the policy depended on “circumstances”. The current deterrence comprised air assets (Dassault Mirage 2000s and SEPECAT Jaguars equipped with ASMP type tactical missile), 68 nuclear warheads deployed by a variety of TELs in the ground forces, both tactical and strategic (Prithvi, Agni series and Surya). But for what we are concerned, as it was reaffirmed recently by UK and France, the most efficient delivery method is by sea, using a SSBN.

A conceptual drawing of INS Arihant. Four SSBN planned, two are in service (sea trials for the second) two more expected for delivery 2023-25.

-The first asset of Indian Deterrence today is incarnated by the four 6,000 tonne, nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) of the Arihant class. INS Arihant was commissioned in August 2016, the second, INS Arhigat, is currently undergoing sea trials as of May 2021. The next two are expected for 2023 and 2025. What ake them exceptional is the fact they are the only non-Chinese SSBNs of Asia. They are also the first nuclear-powered submarines built by India. CIA reported some help from Russia for the nuclear propulsion, but the missiles are Indian. 12 Sagarika (K-15) with nuclear warheads are carried with a range of 700 km. DRDO requested help form the Russian Navy for fire tests. Next batch should carry the Agni-III missile, which have a more consequent range of 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi). But the modified Arihant class is only capable of carrying four of these Agni-III SL.
The Navy planned its next generation SSBN for the 2030, called the S5 type. It will be twice as heavy as the current Ahirant class (S1) at 13,000 tonnes and carrying up to sixteen K6 missiles.

S5 class planned for the 2030s

-The second asset is a surface ship system, short range, Dhanush ballistic missile, a variant of the Prithvi (300 km). It was tested in 2000 from INS Subhadra (Sukanya class patrol craft), launched from its reinforced helicopter deck. Tests in 2004 were successful as well as in 2005 from the destroyer INS Rajput. It is currently introduced for the largest surface ships of the navy. Outside the Dhanush (350 km) and Sagarika (K-15) (700 km), the Navy is developing the Agni-III SL (K4, 3,500 km), while the K-5 (5,000 km) are under Development for the next gen SSBN as well as the K-6 (6,000 km).

Post cold-war Operations

Post-cold war saw the Indian Navy multiplying peace keeping operation and deployed for humanitarian relief after natural disasters. Its primary role remained patrolling maritime trade routes and safeguard Indian exports. The IN took part in more frequent joint forces exercises, like Operation Parakram (2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff) in the northern Arabian Sea, and relieved USN forces in the Strait of Malacca, now available for Operation Enduring Freedom.
The navy intervened after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, launching a massive disaster relief operation towards the Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. 27 ships and dozens of helicopters plus six transport fixed-wing aircraft and circa 5000 personnel were deployed that year. Operation Madad (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu), Operation Sea Waves (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Operation Castor (Maldives), Operation Rainbow (Sri Lanka) and Operation Gambhir (Indonesia) all tested the navy operating capabilities. Operation Gambhir was one of the largest and fastest force mobilisations of the Navy so far. The Indian Navy only took 12 hours after the tsunami to be deployed. Numerous Lessons were learnt from this, leading to the general enhancement of the amphibious force capabilities. INS Jalashwa was acquired and smaller amphibious vessels, and with the growing threat of China in the north, this process in ongoing. There are no plans for the acquisition of LHDs as India naval policy is still mostly centered around defence, not force projection, but it might change.

The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict saw the Indian Nvy launching Operation Sukoon, evacuating 2,280 personal in 20-29 July 2006. This comprised 436 Sri Lankans, 69 Nepalese and 7 Lebanese nationals while Indian naval doctors were deployed during 102 days in USNS Mercy deployed in the Philippines, Bangladesh, Indonesia and East Timor. In 2007, the IN was depliyed after the Cyclone Sidr (Bangladesh). In 2008, another large operation was made after the Cyclone Nargis (Myanmar), the Indian Navy being the first relief force deployed. In 2008, INS Tabar and INS Mysore were deployed in the Gulf of Aden to participate in the multinational operation agains piracy in Somalia, threatening busy trade lines to the red sea. INS Tabar notably foiled dozens of piracy raids and and escorted hundreds of ships. Similar operatiosn were held off the Seychelles, as requested by its own government.

In February 2011, Operation Safe Homecoming was launched to evacuate Indian nationals in Libya. By January–March, Operation Island Watch was another large scale Indian Navy operation for anti-piracy off Somalia and in the Lakshadweep archipelago. The 2015 crisis in Yemen, saw the Indian Navy participating in Operation Raahat, evacuating 3074 Indian citizend and foreign nationals. On 15 April 2016, an Indian Navy Poseidon-8I thwarted a piracy attack attemting to capture MV Sezai Selaha, 800 nautical miles off Mumbai.

China & Pakistan: Current geostrategic threats

The Main threat of India Today is of course China, a strong ally of Pakistan and Bangladesh and possible adversary since the 1969 border war (which also coincided with maximal tensions with USSR, now seeking India as an ally in the region). The Himalaya border is still hotly contested by the Chinese and a “quasi-war” on the border is ongoing since the late 2000s. But moreover, the rapid and spectacular growth of the Chinese PLAN, very active in the south China sea are a concern for India. In case of an escalation of the border war in the north, China now have the assets to deploy its fleet in a complete blockade of Indian maritime trade, with Bangladeshi and Pakistani assistance. Both are also equipped with Chinese warships and trained together.

Modern assets and projects

INS Vikramaditya (2008)

INS Vikramaditya was the former Soviet Navy Kiev-class cruiser Baku (1982), ex-Admiral Gorshkov. After the fall of USSR the new Russian Navy did not possess the budget to operate her. deactivated in 1996, the Russian gvt. had the option of either scrapping her or sell her after a modernization. The latter was chosen as she was proposed to India, which signed a contact in 2004. The deal comprised the delivery of the ship for Free but India would pay US$800 million for its reconstruction and US$1 billion for the aircraft and weapons systems onboard. The reconstruction lasted from 2008 to 2012 and was the most extensive modernization of any large surface warship for the last 30 years. INS Vikramaditya operates today 26 Mikoyan MiG-29K multi-role fighters and 10 Kamov Ka-31 AEW&C and Kamov Ka-28 ASW helicopters for a total capacity of 36 aircraft. Still, she is considered too small for effective service and in the meantime, INS Vikrant was built, while the former is planned to be replaced by the 65,000 tonnes INS Vishal in the 2030s (discussions are ongoing).

INS Vikrant (2013)

45,000 tonnes aicraft carrier entirely designed and built in India, at Cochin shipyards since 2008. Launched in 2013, expected commission in 2021. Due to her relatively small size (261 m) she is equippe with a short take off ramp like INS Vikramaditya. But she could carry more aircraft, up to 40: Currently she operates 26 Mikoyan MiG-29K (or other models) and ten Kamov Ka-31, Westland Sea King and HAL Dhruv helicopters. INS Vishal (300 m) is expected to carry at least 50 aircraft.

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